How to watch a scary movie with your child

Carol Newall, Macquarie University

On Halloween, the cinemas and TV channels are filled with horror movies. But what should you do if you have a young child who wants to watch too?

Many of us have a childhood memory of a movie that gave us nightmares and took us to a new level of fear. Maybe this happened by accident. Or maybe it happened because an adult guardian didn’t choose the right movie for your age.

For me it was The Exorcist. It was also the movie that frightened my mum when she was a youngster. She had warned me not to watch it. But I did. I then slept outside my parents’ room for months for fear of demonic possession.

Parents often ask about the right age for “scary” movies. A useful resource is The Australian Council of Children and the Media, which provides colour-coded age guides for movies rated by child development professionals.

Let’s suppose, though, that you have made the decision to view a scary movie with your child. What are some good rules of thumb in managing this milestone in your child’s life?

Watch with a parent or a friend

Research into indirect experiences can help us understand what happens when a child watches a scary movie. Indirect fear experiences can involve watching someone else look afraid or hurt in a situation or verbal threats (such as “the bogeyman with sharp teeth will come at midnight for children and eat them”).

Children depend very much on indirect experiences for information about danger in the world. Scary movies are the perfect example of these experiences. Fortunately, research also shows that indirectly acquired fears can be reduced by two very powerful sources of information: parents and peers.

In one of our recent studies, we showed that when we paired happy adult faces with a scary situation, children showed greater fear reduction than if they experienced that situation on their own. This suggests that by modelling calm and unfazed behaviour, or potentially even expressing enjoyment about being scared during a movie (notice how people burst into laughter after a jump scare at theatres?), parents may help children be less fearful.

There is also some evidence that discussions with friends can help reduce fear. That said, it’s important to remember that children tend to become more similar to each other in threat evaluation after discussing a scary or ambiguous event with a close friend. So it might be helpful to discuss a scary movie with a good friend who enjoys such movies and can help the child discuss their worries in a positive manner.

Get the facts

How a parent discusses the movie with their child is also important. Children do not have enough experience to understand the statistical probability of dangerous events occurring in the world depicted on screen. For example, after watching Jaws, a child might assume that shark attacks are frequent and occur on every beach.

Children need help to contextualise the things they see in movies. One way of discussing shark fears after viewing Jaws might be to help your child investigate the statistics around shark attacks (the risk of being attacked is around 1 in 3.7 million) and to acquire facts about shark behaviours (such as that they generally do not hunt humans).

These techniques are the basis of cognitive restructuring, which encourages fact-finding rather than catastrophic thoughts to inform our fears. It is also an evidence-based technique for managing excessive anxiety in children and adults.

Exposure therapy

If your child is distressed by a movie, a natural reaction is to prevent them watching it again. I had this unfortunate experience when my seven-year-old daughter accidentally viewed Miss Peregrine’s Home for Peculiar Children, which featured a monster with knives for limbs who ate children’s eyeballs for recreation.

My first instinct was to prevent my daughter watching the movie again. However, one of the most effective ways of reducing excessive and unrealistic fear is to confront it again and again until that fear diminishes into boredom. This is called exposure therapy.

To that end, we subjected her and ourselves to the same movie repeatedly while modelling calm and some hilarity - until she was bored. We muted the sound and did silly voice-overs and fart noises for the monster. We drew pictures of him with a moustache and in a pair of undies. Thankfully, she no longer identifies this movie as one that traumatised her.

This strategy is difficult to execute because it requires tolerating your child’s distress. In fact, it is a technique that is the least used by mental health professionals because of this.

However, when done well and with adequate support (you may need an experienced psychologist if you are not confident), it is one of the most effective techniques for reducing fear following a scary event like an accidental horror movie.

Fear is normal

Did I ever overcome my fear of The Exorcist? It took my mother checking my bed, laughing with me about the movie, and re-affirming that being scared is okay and normal for me to do so (well done mum!)

Fear is a normal and adaptive human response. Some people, including children, love being scared. There is evidence that volunteering to be scared can lead to a heightened sense of accomplishment for some of us, because it provides us with a cognitive break from our daily stress and worries.

Hopefully, you can help ensure that your child’s first scary movie experience is a memorable, enjoyable one.

Carol Newall, Senior Lecturer in Early Childhood, Macquarie University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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Is linking time in the office to career success the best way to get us back to work?

LightField Studios/Shutterstock John L. Hopkins, Swinburne University of Technology

Working from home introduced in response to the harsh pandemic lockdowns in 2020 was expected to be a short term arrangement with staff returning to the office as soon as restrictions were lifted.

Yet, almost four years later, most office workers are still following hybrid arrangements - splitting their week between home and office, with no plans to return full-time to the workplace anytime soon.

In what some employees consider an aggressive move by their bosses to get them back where they can be seen, some companies are now linking office attendance to pay, bonuses and even promotions.

It pays, for some, to return to the office

Linking office attendance with pay has taken off after Citibank workers in the UK were told last September their bonuses could be affected if they didn’t work a minimum of three days per week from the office.

In Australia Origin and Suncorp, have done the same thing, as has ANZ where staff are required to work at least half their hours – averaged over a calendar month – in the office.

If these conditions are not met, it may be taken into consideration in performance and remuneration reviews at the end of the next year.

“If you are one of our people who are yet to be spending more than half your time in the workplace, we need you to adjust your patterns unless you have a formal exception in place,” an internal email to ANZ staff said.

In the US, Amazon has told corporate employees they may miss out on promotion if they ignore the company’s return-to-office mandate, which requires employees to be in the office at least three days a week.

A post on Amazon’s internal website viewed by CNBC said:

Managers own the promotion process, which means it is their responsibility to support your growth through regular conversations and stretch assignments, and to complete all the required inputs for a promotion

If your role is expected to work from the office 3+ days a week and you are not in compliance, your manager will be made aware and VP approval will be required.

Not everyone is happy

To say the reaction to these measures has been divisive is an understatement. Up to now, some hybrid work arrangements may have been ill-defined, and employee expectations confusing.

Some employees will miss out on promotions and bonuses if they refuse to spend at least part of their working week in the office. PressMaster/Shutterstock

The messaging offered here is clear, employees know what is expected of them in terms of office attendance, and the repercussions they may face if they don’t meet those expectations.

And it’s important to remember that these initiatives are only aimed at incentivising workers to attend the office for part of the week, typically 2-3 days out of 5, which still represents a significant flexibility gain compared to what these firms offered before the pandemic.

Is showing up the best measure of performance?

However, critics have raised concerns that linking attendance to pay could hurt high achievers who don’t meet their in-office quotas - will they miss out on bonuses or a promotion simply because they don’t show up to the office enough, regardless of how well they are doing their job otherwise?

Is office attendance really that important, compared to other performance and outcome metrics, and will employees feel they are being treated like school children?

There are also fears about the impact strict attendance requirements will have on diversity, with women, parents, and people with neurodiverse needs more likely to favour a higher proportion of remote working.

Additionally, monitoring and managing attendance creates additional work for managers, and could lead to regular awkward conversations about attendance expectations.

Measuring office attendance may not be as simple as it first sounds either.

If an employee is required to maintain an average of 50% office attendance and they are invited to visit a client interstate for a day, or travel overseas to present at a conference, do these count as “in office days” or “WFH” days? This needs to be established and communicated to staff in writing.

One-size doesn’t fit all

With hybrid work arrangements there is no one right or wrong strategy. Different companies will take different approaches, based on the specific needs of their particular organisation and staff, and only time will tell how successful their respective strategies prove to be.

What we can be certain of is the fact hybrid work will not be disappearing anytime soon, so the focus for 2024 needs to be how to make this arrangement as efficient as possible, rather than trying to turn the clock back to 2019.

John L. Hopkins, Associate professor, Swinburne University of Technology

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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Vaccination rates among Australian teens are dropping. Here’s how we can get back on track

Prostock-studio/Shutterstock Archana Koirala, University of Sydney; Bianca Middleton, Menzies School of Health Research; Fiona Russell, The University of Melbourne; Katrina Clark, Indigenous Knowledge, and Sophie Wen, The University of Queensland

Australia has a successful adolescent immunisation program, routinely achieving high vaccine coverage for teenagers.

However, recent data shows the number of Australian teens receiving the recommended vaccines for their age group has fallen over three years during the COVID pandemic.

So how much have adolescent vaccination rates dropped, and why might this be? And how can we get back on track?

The vaccines teens need – and why they need them

The National Immunisation Program provides a series of free vaccinations for Australian teenagers. These are:

• a booster vaccine for diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (dTpa), usually offered in year 7
• the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, also usually offered in year 7
• a meningococcal ACWY vaccine, offered in year 10.

These vaccines are primarily delivered through school-based immunisation programs and health services such as general practices.

They protect teenagers themselves from diseases, but also help reduce the spread of these diseases in the community.

For example, 2024 has seen a surge in whooping cough (pertussis) cases nationally. Although adolescents won’t necessarily get very sick with whooping cough, they can spread the disease. So the dTpa vaccine helps to protect vulnerable populations, including young babies.

HPV is a leading cause of genital warts and cervical cancer. Giving the HPV shot to young teenagers, before they might be exposed to the virus through sexual activity, provides the best protection against cervical cancer.

And older teenagers and young adults are among those at highest risk of meningococcal disease, which can be fatal. They’re also most likely to carry meningococcal bacteria in their nose and throat, and to spread it to others.

A modest but concerning decline

The most recent Annual Immunisation Coverage Report from the National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance (NCIRS) shows a drop in vaccination coverage among teenagers between 2022 and 2023, while the previous report shows a drop from 2021 to 2022.

For example, the proportion of teens who had received their adolescent dose of dTpa in the year they turned 15 decreased from 87.3% in 2021, to 86.9% in 2022, to 85.5% in 2023.

Meanwhile, the proportion who had received one dose of meningococcal ACWY vaccine by age 17 fell from 76.1% in 2021, to 75.9% in 2022, to 72.8% in 2023.

Vaccination coverage among Indigenous teenagers dropped by similar amounts. For example, the proportion of Indigenous teens who had received one dose of meningococcal ACWY vaccine by age 17 fell from 66.7% in 2021 to 65.6% in 2022 to 62.3% in 2023.

Overall, in 2023, around one in four 18-year-olds hadn’t received all three of the nationally recommended adolescent vaccines.

Adolescent vaccinations are primarily delivered through school-based programs. VH-studio/Shutterstock

These figures show a decline in vaccination coverage among teenagers over three years. This comes after several years of generally increasing coverage before the COVID pandemic.

While the decline has been modest, the downward trend is concerning. It leaves more teenagers – and members of the wider community – vulnerable to serious infectious diseases.

Why is vaccination coverage decreasing among teenagers?

There are likely to be many contributing factors.

Although extended school closures and consequent disruption to school vaccination programs at the height of the pandemic likely played a role, these occurred almost exclusively in Victoria and New South Wales. So they can’t fully explain the ongoing drop in adolescent vaccination coverage across the country.

We don’t have good published data on what influences vaccine acceptance among teenagers. But given parents or guardians need to complete a consent form for their child to get vaccinated at school, we may be able to extrapolate from some of the challenges relating to childhood vaccination uptake.

The trends among teenagers have been consistent with a fall in the rates of younger children who are fully vaccinated. In 2023, 92.8% of one-year-olds were fully vaccinated, down from 94.8% in 2020. At five years old, the coverage rate in 2023 was 93.3%, down also from 94.8% in 2020.

A recent survey into barriers to childhood vaccination in Australia indicates a high proportion of parents who choose not to vaccinate young children have concerns about vaccine safety (48%) and effectiveness (40%). It’s possible the COVID pandemic has hindered vaccine acceptance.

Practical access barriers may also be hampering adolescent immunisation coverage. These might include lack of knowledge among parents about vaccines or immunisation schedules, complicated parental consent processes, school absenteeism, and lack of awareness of immunisation services outside school-based programs.

The NCIRS report for 2023 showed low HPV coverage for adolescents living in socioeconomically disadvantaged and remote locations. This suggests logistics such as transport may also play a role, especially for teens who miss vaccination during the school-based program.

How can we improve things? And what can parents do?

We need research to better understand the factors influencing vaccine uptake among adolescents. This can help us design and implement strategies to improve vaccination coverage in this age group.

For example, understanding the factors influencing HPV vaccination uptake among Indigenous adolescents and ensuring equitable access to targeted and culturally appropriate HPV vaccine education strategies has significantly improved vaccination coverage for this group. HPV vaccine coverage for Indigenous women aged 17 to 25 is now higher than for the general population.

We need to better understand the barriers to vaccination among adolescents. SeventyFour/Shutterstock

Parents can support their teenagers by talking to them about the importance of immunisation, listening to their concerns and answering any questions they may have. Consent forms will generally include information about the vaccine and the disease it protects against.

If your child misses out on receiving their vaccinations at school or doesn’t attend school, families can access free National Immunisation Program vaccines from their GP, pharmacy, local council or other health services.

Specialist immunisation services are also available in most states and territories. These services are for children and adolescents who are in high-risk groups or for families who are concerned about vaccinating their children.

Teenagers are the next generation of parents, and their attitudes towards immunisation will influence coverage rates of their children in the future. This is yet another reason we need to successfully address any concerns or barriers for this group around vaccination.

Archana Koirala, Paediatrician and Infectious Diseases Specialist, University of Sydney; Bianca Middleton, Senior Research Fellow, Menzies School of Health Research; Fiona Russell, Senior Principal Research Fellow; paediatrician; infectious diseases epidemiologist; vaccinologist, The University of Melbourne; Katrina Clark, Aboriginal Immunisation Manager at Hunter New England Population Health, Indigenous Knowledge, and Sophie Wen, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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Most adults will gain half a kilo this year – and every year. Here’s how to stop ‘weight creep’

Allgo/Unsplash

Nick Fuller, University of Sydney

As we enter a new year armed with resolutions to improve our lives, there’s a good chance we’ll also be carrying something less helpful: extra kilos. At least half a kilogram, to be precise.

“Weight creep” doesn’t have to be inevitable. Here’s what’s behind this sneaky annual occurrence and some practical steps to prevent it.

Small gains add up

Adults tend to gain weight progressively as they age and typically gain an average of 0.5 to 1kg every year.

While this doesn’t seem like much each year, it amounts to 5kg over a decade. The slow-but-steady nature of weight creep is why many of us won’t notice the extra weight gained until we’re in our fifties.

Why do we gain weight?

Subtle, gradual lifestyle shifts as we progress through life and age-related biological changes cause us to gain weight. Our:

• activity levels decline. Longer work hours and family commitments can see us become more sedentary and have less time for exercise, which means we burn fewer calories

• diets worsen. With frenetic work and family schedules, we sometimes turn to pre-packaged and fast foods. These processed and discretionary foods are loaded with hidden sugars, salts and unhealthy fats. A better financial position later in life can also result in more dining out, which is associated with a higher total energy intake

• sleep decreases. Busy lives and screen use can mean we don’t get enough sleep. This disturbs our body’s energy balance, increasing our feelings of hunger, triggering cravings and decreasing our energy

Insufficient sleep can increase our appetite. Craig Adderley/Pexels

• stress increases. Financial, relationship and work-related stress increases our body’s production of cortisol, triggering food cravings and promoting fat storage

• metabolism slows. Around the age of 40, our muscle mass naturally declines, and our body fat starts increasing. Muscle mass helps determine our metabolic rate, so when our muscle mass decreases, our bodies start to burn fewer calories at rest.

We also tend to gain a small amount of weight during festive periods – times filled with calorie-rich foods and drinks, when exercise and sleep are often overlooked. One study of Australian adults found participants gained 0.5 kilograms on average over the Christmas/New Year period and an average of 0.25 kilograms around Easter.

Why we need to prevent weight creep

It’s important to prevent weight creep for two key reasons:

1. Weight creep resets our body’s set point

Set-point theory suggests we each have a predetermined weight or set point. Our body works to keep our weight around this set point, adjusting our biological systems to regulate how much we eat, how we store fat and expend energy.

When we gain weight, our set point resets to the new, higher weight. Our body adapts to protect this new weight, making it challenging to lose the weight we’ve gained.

But it’s also possible to lower your set point if you lose weight gradually and with an interval weight loss approach. Specifically, losing weight in small manageable chunks you can sustain – periods of weight loss, followed by periods of weight maintenance, and so on, until you achieve your goal weight.

Holidays can also come with weight gain. Zan Lazarevic/Unsplash

2. Weight creep can lead to obesity and health issues

Undetected and unmanaged weight creep can result in obesity which can increase our risk of heart disease, strokes, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis and several types of cancers (including breast, colorectal, oesophageal, kidney, gallbladder, uterine, pancreatic and liver).

A large study examined the link between weight gain from early to middle adulthood and health outcomes later in life, following people for around 15 years. It found those who gained 2.5 to 10kg over this period had an increased incidence of type 2 diabetes, heart disease, strokes, obesity-related cancer and death compared to participants who had maintained a stable weight.

Fortunately, there are steps we can take to build lasting habits that will make weight creep a thing of the past.

7 practical steps to prevent weight creep

1. Eat from big to small

Aim to consume most of your food earlier in the day and taper your meal sizes to ensure dinner is the smallest meal you eat.

A low-calorie or small breakfast leads to increased feelings of hunger, specifically appetite for sweets, across the course of the day.

We burn the calories from a meal 2.5 times more efficiently in the morning than in the evening. So emphasising breakfast over dinner is also good for weight management.

Aim to consume bigger breakfasts and smaller dinners. Michael Burrows/Pexels

2. Use chopsticks, a teaspoon or an oyster fork

Sit at the table for dinner and use different utensils to encourage eating more slowly.

This gives your brain time to recognise and adapt to signals from your stomach telling you you’re full.

3. Eat the full rainbow

Fill your plate with vegetables and fruits of different colours first to support eating a high-fibre, nutrient-dense diet that will keep you feeling full and satisfied.

Meals also need to be balanced and include a source of protein, wholegrain carbohydrates and healthy fat to meet our dietary needs – for example, eggs on wholegrain toast with avocado.

4. Reach for nature first

Retrain your brain to rely on nature’s treats – fresh vegetables, fruit, honey, nuts and seeds. In their natural state, these foods release the same pleasure response in the brain as ultra-processed and fast foods, helping you avoid unnecessary calories, sugar, salt and unhealthy fats.

5. Choose to move

Look for ways to incorporate incidental activity into your daily routine – such as taking the stairs instead of the lift – and boost your exercise by challenging yourself to try a new activity.

Just be sure to include variety, as doing the same activities every day often results in boredom and avoidance.

Try new activities or sports to keep your interest up. Cottonbro Studio/Pexels

6. Prioritise sleep

Set yourself a goal of getting a minimum of seven hours of uninterrupted sleep each night, and help yourself achieve it by avoiding screens for an hour or two before bed.

7. Weigh yourself regularly

Getting into the habit of weighing yourself weekly is a guaranteed way to help avoid the kilos creeping up on us. Aim to weigh yourself on the same day, at the same time and in the same environment each week and use the best quality scales you can afford.

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At the Boden Group, Charles Perkins Centre, we are studying the science of obesity and running clinical trials for weight loss. You can register here to express your interest.

Nick Fuller, Clinical Trials Director, Department of Endocrinology, RPA Hospital, University of Sydney

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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Mental Health Awareness Month: Managing Workplace Stressors

By Doctor Julia Lyons, Principal Counselling Psychologist at Onebright

In light of Mental Health Awareness Month, it’s crucial to address the stresses of modern life, particularly those stemming from the workplace. Pressures at work are a part of life, regardless of age, experience or job title, and it’s not necessarily negative. Manageable pressure can be motivating and lead to increased productivity. However, when pressure is sustained and unmanageable it can lead to stress. In the UK, nearly a third of adults report feeling stressed more than 10 days a month.

Understanding your brain’s response

Your brain is equipped with a built-in alarm system designed for your protection. When it detects a threat, it triggers your body to release hormones that quicken your heart rate and elevate your blood pressure. This “fight, flight or freeze” response prepares you to confront the threat effectively. However, once the danger has passed, your body should ideally return to a calm, relaxed state. Yet, due to the relentless challenges and demands of contemporary life, many people find that their alarm systems seldom deactivate.

The long-term impact of stress

Continuously increased stress levels can negatively impact your mental well-being. If left unchecked and unmanaged without any active strategies to lower stress levels over a significant period, it can affect happiness, quality of life and, eventually turn into more serious mental health concerns. Stress and work, combined, can manifest in various ways and differ for each individual but these are some to look out for

Work Performance

• Performance issues and notable declines or inconsistencies in work
• Mistakes and errors arising in work outputs
• Diminished motivation and commitment
• Frequent forgetfulness

Conflict and Emotional 

• SignsMood shifts and irritability
• Over-reactions to minor issues
• Difficulty in getting along with colleagues
• Decreased social interaction
• Frequent absences
• Arriving late to work
• Increased criticism of colleagues

Physical Manifestations

• Difficulty in relaxing and defining boundaries between personal and work life
• Neglecting personal appearance and hygiene
• Fatigue and persistent tiredness
• Headaches related to work tensions

Long-term impact on health

The importance of managing stress is reflected in research which shows that acute and prolonged stress can cause long-term harm due to high levels of cortisol, a biomarker produced when in stress. Prolonged cortisol levels and chronically stressed individuals face the risk of damage to brain chemistry and structure resulting in poor memory, attention and executive functioning. Other research has also shown that stress can also increase the chances of developing neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia and Alzheimer’s in later years.

Strategies for managing stress

As such, stress management is not only key for effective workplace functioning but also as a part of overall well-being and healthy lifestyles. The list below provides various strategies and solutions to incorporate small changes which can have a positive impact on coping with stress at work:

• Detach Psychologically from Work: Dedicate time daily to engage in activities unrelated to work (like video games, reading, or cooking) to mentally disconnect and facilitate relaxation.
• Utilise Micro-Breaks: Schedule brief, frequent breaks during the workday to stretch, hydrate, or have a quick social interaction, which can help rejuvenate your focus and energy.
• Choose Preferred Recovery Activities: Opt for activities that genuinely interest you during breaks or downtime, whether it’s a solo hobby or relaxing in a way that suits you, to maximise the benefits of recovery.
• Engage in High-Energy Recovery Activities: Participate in activities that require more dedication and focus, such as exercise, learning new skills, or volunteering. These can replenish your energy and improve your work performance after recovery.
• Optimise Your Environment: Enhance your workplace with elements of nature, open windows for fresh air, take walks in nearby parks, or use nature imagery to boost recovery and reduce stress.
• Incorporating Meditation: Regular meditation can reduce cortisol levels by 25%, limit mind wandering, and be more aware of your well-being.
• Nutrition for Brain Health: Include brain foods in your diet such as proteins, Omega-3 fatty acids, B vitamins, and Vitamin D for optimal brain functioning.
• Adequate Sleep: Ensure sufficient sleep to restore brain health and reduce stress.

Effective stress management enables you to reduce the impact stress has on your life, allowing you to lead a happier, healthier, and more productive existence. The ultimate aim is to achieve a balanced lifestyle, with ample time dedicated to work, relationships, relaxation, and personal interests, as well as the resilience to withstand pressure and tackle challenges at work directly. However, stress management is not a universal solution; it varies from person to person. That’s why it’s crucial to experiment and discover what methods are most effective for you. It is imperative to note that if you’ve tried these self-help techniques and they haven’t been effective and that you have been feeling stressed or stuck in the ‘fight, flight or freeze’ response mode for a prolonged time, consider consulting your GP or a therapist. Your doctor can suggest additional coping strategies or recommend cognitive behavioural therapy to manage your stress levels better. Mental Health Awareness Month: Managing Workplace Stressors

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Extreme heat is a killer for outdoor sporting events – let’s plan properly to keep everyone safe

Hannah Mason, James Cook University; Amy Peden, UNSW Sydney; Anthony Leicht, James Cook University; Jemma King, James Cook University, and Richard Franklin, James Cook University

Attending outdoor sporting events can be life-threatening. Amid soaring temperatures, event organisers need to take extra care – not just for athletes, but also for officials, spectators and volunteers.

The consequences of extreme heat exposure range from dehydration to heatstroke and even death. National Rugby League player Keith Titmuss died in 2020 due to “exertional heat stroke” following an excessive pre-season training session. Scorching temperatures also disrupted the 2019 Australian Open and wreaked havoc during the 2023 Sydney Marathon.

In Paris, the 2024 Summer Olympics will proceed with no air conditioning in the athlete’s village. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, organisers chose alternative cooling measures such as insulation, double-glazing, fans and pumping cool water through the floor. Unconvinced, the Australian Olympic Committee is buying portable air con units just in case. Athletes from poorer nations are expected to just keep their curtains shut.

In the lead-up to the Brisbane 2032 Summer Olympics and other major sporting events in Queensland, the state government wants to prepare for extreme heat. Our new research explores this health hazard, the strategies recommended to reduce heat exposure at sporting events, and who is responsible for ensuring these strategies are put in place. Here we offer practical tips for all involved. We’re going to need them more than ever as the world warms.

Inside the 2024 Paris Olympics Athletes’ Village, where there’s no air conditioning (7 News Australia)

What we did and what we found

We conducted an international review of research published between 2010 and 2023 to determine the current state of knowledge in this area.

Our systematic approach honed in on 40 peer-reviewed articles about heat at major sporting events. These were events held in large venues that attracted local, domestic and international spectators. The recommendations fell into six themes: planning, mitigation strategies, medical, policy, education and research.

A consistent pattern of heat-related challenges emerged. The rate of heat-related illness increased along with the temperature. Certain groups of people were more vulnerable to heat. Athletes participating in endurance events such as long-distance running were at higher risk than those participating in short-duration sports involving throwing (javelin, discus) or jumping (high jump, long jump). The diverse needs of those with multiple medical conditions and differing abilities including Paralympic athletes also warrant special consideration.

We found the significant health risks of heat should be considered before, during and after major sporting events. Individuals, coaches, officials and organisers all have a role to play.

Our findings can inform evidence-based strategies to protect the health of those attending and competing in such events now and into the future.

It’s not just about athletes

While athletes may have prepared to compete in hot conditions, using technology such as cooling vests or cold-water immersion, spectators are less likely to deliberately prepare their bodies for extreme temperatures. But there are plenty of things we can all do.

We can drink plenty of fluids, seek shade and use sun protection. Ideally, venue management will have provided access to drinking water, shady spaces and cooling (misters, fans or air conditioning). All requires careful planning and thoughtful construction.

Organisers need to decide what time to run each event, what temperatures will trigger heat policies (such as pushing events to a cooler time slot), whether rules need to be changed in the event of extreme heat (such as more or earlier break times), and what measures need to be in place to protect officials, spectators and volunteers.

Top tips for spectators

Here are some practical tips you can use to reduce heat-related risks when extreme heat strikes:

1. think about where your seat is located and whether there will be any shade, or whether you will be directly exposed to the elements

2. find out whether you can come and go, or attend the event later in the day – where possible, avoid events timed for the hottest part of the day

3. wear light-coloured, loose-fitting clothes and a hat

4. see if you can bring your own water bottle into the event and refill it, and make sure you are well hydrated before, during and after the event

5. avoid caffeine and alcohol as these drinks can make your more dehydrated

6. check what event organisers have planned for extreme weather such as heatwaves.

A warning to event organisers

A great deal has changed since Australia hosted the Sydney Olympics at the turn of the century.

There are no excuses in 2024. All sports and sporting events should have a heat policy that addresses players, spectators and officials. Sports Medicine Australia’s Extreme Heat Policy is a good example.

For major sporting events, engaging with health services should be part of the planning process. Then they can prepare for the possibility of multiple people presenting with heat stroke.

At the event, medical teams should be skilled in recognising the warning signs of heat related illness, as well as diagnosis and treatment.

With extreme heat events becoming more common worldwide, sporting bodies must be prepared to alter scheduled events (including the time, location, scheduled breaks, and so on) as required.

Let’s ensure outdoor sporting events can continue in a warming climate.

By working together, we can provide safer, more enjoyable experiences for all involved.

Hannah Mason, Research assistant in Public Health, Medical, and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University; Amy Peden, NHMRC Research Fellow, School of Population Health & co-founder UNSW Beach Safety Research Group, UNSW Sydney; Anthony Leicht, Professor in Exercise Science, James Cook University; Jemma King, Lecturer, Public Health, James Cook University, and Richard Franklin, Professor of Public Health, James Cook University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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How To Avoid Ageism In Hiring

By Khyati Sundaram, CEO of ethical AI hiring experts, Applied: Ageism is rife in workplaces, and a third of people aged over 50 believe that they have been turned down for a job because of their age. Traditional hiring systems have a lot to answer for. 

Everything from the language on job adverts to candidates’ dates of birth on CVs can deter older applicants, and trigger ageist biases against them. This risks ruling older workers out of jobs, perpetuating homogeneity, and fortifying harmful stereotypes at the root of the problem.

The solution is simple: make recruitment systems inclusive of candidates of all ages, and eliminate age-related bias from hiring decisions. Here’s how… 

Widen your talent pool

Older workers tend to prefer flexible and part-time roles (more on this below). So advertising jobs via platforms dedicated to showcasing flexible employers, like Flexa, can help companies reach a wider age range of talent. In general, the more recruitment platforms a company uses, the more diverse their applicant pool is likely to be. So additionally consider using LinkedIn, Indeed, and Applied – where candidates go to find fair and inclusive employers.

If jobs platforms use AI, check that their models have been trained on ethical datasets. Recruitment-AI models should be advertising and matching candidates to roles based on their relevant skills, rather than how closely they match those who have tended to be successful – and perhaps also youthful – in the past.

Rethink job advert language

Job adverts that state a preference for applicants who are “energetic” and “fun” have been found to deter older job applicants. The same goes for job adverts which are labelled as “graduate schemes”, where “new joiner” or “transition scheme” could be used instead.

The reality is that candidates’ career stages and personality traits are not accurate markers of success. So focus instead on listing skills that are actually needed for the job at hand. Ethical AI can help flag up language on job adverts which might deter certain groups from applying, and can also be used to identify the skills needed for specific roles. 

Offer age-inclusive roles

Older workers are more likely to seek part-time roles, and job-sharing may suit “un-retirees” who don’t want to return to full-time employment. Older workers – who may not need senior colleagues nearby to show them the ropes, and who may prioritise networking and socialising opportunities less – also tend to prefer working from home. A flexible approach covers all bases. 

Offer age-inclusive benefits

“Free beers in the office” and “pizza parties” won’t appeal to all job candidates. Job adverts that mention pension contribution policies and development opportunities (as well as flexible working arrangements) have been found to be more appealing to older workers.

Offering on-the-job training for successful candidates can also help attract older applicants who are looking to switch careers, as well as retirees who are looking to re-enter the workforce. In addition, employers should consider whether their health insurance and wider healthcare benefits meet the needs of older workers to broaden their appeal. 

Strip back applications

Redact candidates’ dates of birth, graduation years, and names from their CVs and/or application forms. This information can lead hiring teams to lean into ageist biases, but offers no indication of whether or not applicants would be a good fit for roles.

Career gaps should also be taken out of the equation. There’s a misconception that time out of work leads to skills fade. This stigma disadvantages older workers who have had more time to acquire career gaps, perhaps to care for children or sick relatives, or following temporary retirements (one in five people are now looking to return to work following retirement). The ideal solution is to use anonymous applications and skills tests instead of CVs. Alternatively, replace dates on CVs with the number of years candidates have spent in previous roles. Research shows that this improves callback rates by 14%, compared to when job histories show a ‘gap’.

Avoid ‘culture-fit’ interviews

It’s a good idea to remove opportunities for small talk in interviews, which can lead interviewers to favour candidates who mirror the existing culture of a company. In other words, younger candidates might be deemed a good culture fit by ‘younger’ companies, regardless of whether or not they are a good fit for specific roles. Structuring interviews instead, so that every candidate is asked the same questions in the same order, ensures the utmost objectivity. Interview questions themselves should focus on helping panels assess candidates’ role-relevant skills – the most accurate indicators of performance. Work sample questions, which are based on role-specific scenarios, are a useful tool for this. For example, to test the pitching skills of someone applying to a sales role, you could ask them how they would go about presenting a particular product to a prospective customer. How To Avoid Ageism In Hiring - HR News

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Healthy morning habits to eliminate stress from life

New Delhi, Septembver 1 (IANSlife) The early hours of the day are a special time and the practice of mindful morning habits during this time can do wonders to keep your body and mind free of stress and enhance your wellness. While exercise, meditation, and proper nourishment are well-acknowledged in stress management, there are some wonderful yogic techniques also.

Dr. Hansaji Yogendra, the director of The Yoga Institute shared with IANSlife some morning activities you could bring into your personal routine to nurture your well-being and to set a positive trajectory for the day ahead.

Early Rising

In India, the auspicious time approximately an hour and a half before sunrise is known as the Brahma Muhurta or the Creator’s Time. It is observed that at this time, our potential to be creative is at its peak. If you want to acquire new knowledge, to sharpen your skills, or even to enhance your health, you must do so in this creative time. In this magical time when the day begins, the universe is like a womb filled with cosmic energy. This energy can be easily absorbed if you are awake at this time. Early rising allows you to start your day with a sense of calmness, setting the stage for a stress-free morning.

Solitude

A tranquil morning provides the space for the cultivation of solitude, a realm where introspection and self-discovery converge. Communing with oneself through practices meditation or reading scriptures nurtures emotional resilience and self-awareness. The sanctuary of solitude nurtures the spirit, fortifying it against the cacophony of the external world's stresses. A meditative start to the day sets the tone for a serene mindset that can mitigate stress. Maintaining silence, even if only for a few moments, allows the mind to attune itself to the present moment.

Chanting

Chanting mantras or sacred sounds is a powerful yogic technique that resonates with the body's energy centers, or chakras. By uttering specific sounds, you can release tension and promote a sense of harmony. The 'Om' mantra, for instance, is known for its vibrational qualities that calm the mind and reduce stress. Chanting this mantra during your morning routine can create a serene and peaceful atmosphere.

Jal Neti

Jal neti is cleansing of the nasal passages with water. It stimulates the nerve endings and cools down your brain. Jal neti should be followed by Kapalabhati. Do 30 rounds of kapalabhati to open your energy channels. This practice not only helps clear the sinuses and improve respiratory health but also has a soothing effect on the nervous system, alleviating stress and promoting mental clarity.

Movement

Physical activity, when woven into the fabric of the morning routine, is excellent for stress reduction. Engaging in a session of yoga, a brisk walk, swimming or a team game releases endorphins, the body's natural mood enhancers. Any exercise in the morning is known to enhance cognitive function and regulate cortisol levels, the primary stress hormone. This brings a balance to your body’s intricate chemistry and fills uplifts your spirits in a state of euphoric well-being.

Journaling

Maintaining a gratitude journal is a powerful morning habit. Take a few minutes each morning to jot down three things you are grateful for. This practice shifts your focus away from stressors and cultivates a positive mindset, setting a harmonious tone for the rest of the day.Cultivating gratitude transmutes stress into serenity. As the morning light bathes the world in its gentle glow, taking a moment to acknowledge the blessings that envelop your life sets a positive perspective. Maintaining a gratitude journal or engaging in daily affirmations kindles a sense of contentment.

Digital Detox

In an age of perpetual connectivity, the quiet morning hours serve as a perfect time to detach from the digital realm. This digital detox window allows for genuine engagement with the self and the physical environment. By keeping away from the inflow of emails, messages, and notifications, you can give your mind the luxury of uninterrupted reprieve. This will help you to reclaimyour mental space and avert the stress that arises from incessant digital interactions.

Mindful Planning

Having a structured plan for the day can forestall stress-induced chaos. Keep a journal to outline tasks, prioritize responsibilities, and establish realistic goals to get a sense of control and organization. With this habit, you can handle responsibilities with poise, while reducing the potential for undue stress.

These practices offer profound benefits that extend beyond mere stress reduction. If you accept these practices with an open heart and a willingness to explore, you can definitely achieve a more peaceful, centered, and stress-free life. Along with these mindful morning habits, you must also have a nourishing breakfast and then start your work. Remember, avoid wasting time, day dreaming, eating, or doing stressful activities in these early hours. Such things will only drain your energies.As the morning sun ascends, beckoning the realms of possibility, let the wisdom of yogic precepts and mindful practices lead you to a balanced existence. Healthy morning habits to eliminate stress from life | MorungExpress | morungexpress.com

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How the Paris Olympics could become a super-spreader event for dengue

Mark Booth, Newcastle University

In September 2023, several people came down with dengue fever in Paris, France. The presence of this mosquito-borne disease was notable for two reasons. It was the most northerly outbreak ever recorded, and none of the people had travelled recently. This demonstrated it is now possible for dengue to be transmitted locally in northern Europe.

These facts are important in 2024 because of the Olympics. France waits in anticipation of more than 10 million athletes, spectators, officials and tourists descending on the city for the event. The French government knows there is a risk of dengue. In Paris, hundreds of sites are being regularly checked for the presence of the dengue-carrying mosquitoes. Will this be enough?

The concept of the super-spreader in infection epidemiology is not new. In essence, it means that a small fraction of a population, maybe just one person, is responsible for most of the cases. A famous historical super-spreader was “typhoid Mary”. Mary Mallon was an asymptomatic carrier of typhoid who may have infected over 100 people.

A study published in the journal Nature suggests that about 15% of people were responsible for 85% of cases of COVID in Hunan Province, China. In terms of dengue, one analysis from Peru of super-spreading suggests 8% of human-occupied spaces are responsible for over half of cases. (It should be noted that dengue cannot be caught directly from another human, only from the bite of a dengue-carrying mosquito.)

This is not the first time the Olympics has been identified as a risk factor for viral epidemics. The 2016 Olympics in Brazil were almost postponed because of fears about Zika - another virus transmitted by the Aedes mosquito.

In the end, any worries were put to bed, because there were no reported cases.

Fear about COVID spreading via the Tokyo Olympics brought about drastic measures to limit transmission. At that event, few infections occurred inside the Olympic bubble, but there was an increase in cases among the general population.

So what is different about Paris?

Aedes has spread considerably further than in 2016, and the number of dengue cases worldwide has increased dramatically in the same period. In 2016 there were 5.2 million cases reported worldwide. Halfway through 2024, there have already been 7.6 million cases.

Visitors from more than 200 countries are expected in France for the Olympics. Many of those countries are already experiencing dengue this year.

For the Paris Olympics to become a super-spreader event, several factors must overlap. There needs to be enough mosquitoes, enough susceptible and already-infected people, enough time and enough mosquito bites.

Perfectly adapted

The tiger mosquito is perfectly adapted to the urban Paris environment. It needs just the smallest amount of water in a small container to lay its eggs. It preferentially feeds on humans, at dawn and dusk. The eggs themselves can withstand dry conditions for months. Once wet again, the eggs will hatch.

What makes this situation potentially dangerous for Paris is that some of these mosquitoes may have dengue already inside them, passed down from their mother. This could significantly reduce the number of bites needed to start an epidemic.

Within the time frame of the Olympics, an infected athlete or spectator could be bitten once by a mosquito and seed an epidemic in a week or so. Each female mosquito can lay up to 200 eggs at a time.

Most dengue cases are asymptomatic. People infected before or during the Olympics may have no idea they are carrying the virus. They might take the virus back home and seed an epidemic there without ever knowing it.

Whether people get sick or not, they are carrying the virus and can transmit the infection onwards if they get bitten by an Aedes mosquito.

At the Rio Carnival this year, a dengue outbreak just days before the event led to a public health emergency being called, but the event wasn’t cancelled.

There will be no public health emergency in Paris because the event itself is the risk factor. Anyone living, working, visiting, competing, volunteering or even just passing through Paris during the Olympic period is going to be part of a huge natural experiment – whether they know it or not.

Mark Booth, Senior Lecturer in Parasite Epidemiology, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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6 questions you should be ready to answer to smash that job interview

Antonio Guillem/Shutterstock Timothy Colin Bednall, Swinburne University of Technology

With the new year underway employers are beginning to resume normal business activities and restart their hiring process. Similarly, many school and university graduates are beginning their job search after a well-earned break.

While some employers are using increasingly sophisticated approaches to recruiting such as psychometric testing and artificial intelligence, interviews remain one of the most common selection methods.

If you have been invited to a job interview, congratulations, as it likely means you have been shortlisted for the role. However, for many people, interviews can be an unnerving process. Not only do they require candidates to think on their feet, but also to create a positive impression of themselves as a potential co-worker.

With that in mind, it always pays to prepare by anticipating what will be discussed and practising your answers. Here are six types of questions you may be asked:

1. Tell me a bit about yourself?

An interview will often start with broad questions about your background and interest in a job. These may include questions such as: “What motivated you to apply for this role?” or “Tell me about your long-term career aspirations”.

For these types of questions, a convincing answer will highlight relevant skills you can bring to the role. These professional experiences do not have to come from the same type of position. For instance, if you were applying for a customer service job, you might cite communication and problem-solving methods you used on a student team project.

Interview candidates need to present themselves as someone others would want to work with. fizkes/Shutterstock

A convincing answer will focus on intrinsic motivation: specifically, the aspects of the job you find interesting, enjoyable or otherwise rewarding. These could involve working with people, solving tricky business problems or making a social impact. Avoid negative remarks about your current employer and sources of extrinsic motivation - such as money or benefits - unless part of a salary negotiation.

Your answer will also show how the role aligns with your own values. For instance, if you are applying for a teaching position, you could highlight your belief in the importance of education, as well as anything about the school you admire, such as its program of extracurricular activities.

2. How did you resolve a particular problem in the past?

Behavioural questions require candidates to provide examples of the past actions they took to manage situations. For instance: “Tell me about a time when you received a customer complaint. What actions did you take, and what was the outcome?” Their objective is to predict how candidates will behave in similar situations.

You can prepare for these questions by studying the job selection criteria and anticipating the questions the interviewer may ask.

If you do not have the relevant experience for one of the questions, you can say that you can’t recall a specific example, but you could outline how you would deal with the situation described in the question.

3. What are your weaknesses?

Interviewers will often ask about what you see as your greatest strengths and weaknesses.

The strengths part of this question enables you to highlight your knowledge and skills most relevant for the role. In general, it is a good idea to provide examples of specific accomplishments that illustrate these capabilities.

The weaknesses can be addressed by framing “weaknesses” as professional aspirations. In general, it is a good idea to focus on a capability that is non-essential for the role, in which you would like to gain experience. For instance, if you are not a confident public speaker but recognise it as a necessary for your long-term career, you could say it is a skill you would like to work on.

Weaknesses, such as a lack of public speaking experience, should be framed as professional aspirations. Mentatdgt/Shutterstock

By expressing willingness to receive further training and development, you can leave a much more positive impression than simply listing your current shortcomings.

4. What are your salary expectations?

Usually, pay negotiations will occur after an offer has been made, but sometimes the topic will come up during the interview.

Before stating your expectation, it is wise to find out the salary and other benefits associated with the role. If the salary has not been listed in the job description, you should ask the employer what the budgeted salary range for the position is.

Ahead of the interview, do some research and find out what is typical for the role you are applying for based on your level of experience.

Be careful about disclosing your current salary; this information can provide a baseline that can make it difficult to negotiate a higher salary. If you are asked this question, you can politely decline to answer or indicate the information is between yourself and your current employer.

5. Inappropriate or illegal questions

Unfortunately, some employers may ask inappropriate or illegal questions. These may relate to relationship status, carer responsibilities, childhood planning, physical or mental health, cultural or ethnic background and union activity.

If you are asked an inappropriate question, you can politely ask the interviewer how that information would be relevant to your ability to perform the job.

Ultimately, job candidates have a right to refuse to answer such questions, and employers who ask them may open themselves to legal action through the Fair Work Commission, Fair Work Ombudsman or the Australian Human Rights Commission.

6. Do you have any questions for me?

Often, the interviewer will invite the candidate to ask their own questions. Thoughtfully selected questions can leave a positive lasting impression.

In this part of the interview, you can clarify any aspect of the role you feel unsure about, such as the working hours. It can also be good to do some research on the organisation and to ask some more specific questions about its clients, projects, or long-term plans.

Beyond the specific requirements of the role, a good topic to ask about is the team and organisational culture. You could, for example, ask what a typical day in the life of a team member would look like.

At the end of the interview, you should ask about the next steps including when you should expect to hear back from them.

One final thing to consider about an interview is that it is a two-way process; you are also interviewing the employer to see if the job would be a good fit for you personally and professionally. If the role, organisation or people seem unappealing after the interview process, then it is wise to look elsewhere.

Timothy Colin Bednall, Associate Professor in Management, Swinburne University of Technology

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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The world is rushing to Africa to mine critical minerals like lithium – how the continent should deal with the demand

James Boafo, Murdoch University; Eric Stemn, University of Mines and Technology; Jacob Obodai, Edge Hill University, and Philip Nti Nkrumah, The University of Queensland

Global demand for critical minerals, particularly lithium, is growing rapidly to meet clean energy and de-carbonisation objectives.

Africa hosts substantial resources of critical minerals. As a result, foreign mining companies are rushing to invest in exploration and acquire mining licences.

According to the 2023 Critical Minerals Market Review by the International Energy Agency, demand for lithium, for example, tripled from 2017 to 2022. Similarly, the critical minerals market doubled in five years, reaching US$320 billion in 2022. The demand for these metals is projected to increase sharply, more than doubling by 2030 and quadrupling by 2050. Annual revenues are projected to reach US$400 billion.

In our recent research, we analysed African countries that produce minerals that the rest of the world has deemed “critical”. We focused on lithium projects in Namibia, Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Ghana. We discovered these countries do not yet have robust strategies for the critical minerals sector. Instead they are simply sucked into the global rush for these minerals.

We recommend that the African Union should expedite the development of an African critical minerals strategy that will guide member countries in negotiating mining contracts and agreements. The strategy should draw from leading mining practices around the world. We also recommend that countries should revise their mining policies and regulations to reflect the opportunities and challenges posed by the increasing global demand for critical minerals.

Otherwise, African countries that are rich in critical minerals will not benefit from the current boom in demand.

What are critical minerals?

There is no universal consensus on what critical minerals are. Various regions and institutions have different lists of critical minerals, and the contents of these lists keep changing. For instance, Australia has classified 47 minerals as critical. The European Union has identified a list of 34 critical raw materials that are important to the EU economy and face a risk of disruption. The US critical minerals list contains 50 elements, 45 of which are also considered strategic minerals.

Each country or region has reasons why these minerals are classified as critical. For most western countries, minerals are critical if they

• are essential for a low carbon economy or for national security

• have no substitutes

• are vulnerable to supply chain disruption.

Lithium projects in Africa

At the time of our research there were 18 lithium projects at various stages, from early-stage exploration to production, across Africa. We focused on those in Namibia, Zimbabwe, the DRC and Ghana.

Our research revealed that conversations on Africa’s critical minerals had largely been shaped by geostrategic and economic opportunities arising from demand from western countries and China. Less attention was paid to the supply chains African countries should secure for current and future industrial applications.

We realised that these countries contributed little to global carbon emissions and their economies were not driven by industrialisation. The current inadequate infrastructure and policies to deal with the repercussions of lithium mining, for example, underscored the lack of a clear agenda. Lithium mining has impacts on communities, biodiversity, water sources and energy usage.

We also discovered that with over 30% of the world’s critical minerals deposits, African countries could become major global suppliers. They could also trade among themselves to avoid potential supply chain disruption or even monopoly by countries outside Africa.

Our research also highlights that emerging lithium mining in Zimbabwe, the DRC and Namibia is reinforcing and breeding new forms of corruption and illegality in the resources sector. Ghana is still in the early stage of setting up its lithium sector.

What is the way forward?

Africa needs stronger resources governance: regulations, accountability and transparency. Mining policies and regulations must reflect the opportunities and challenges of meeting global demand for critical minerals. Mining companies operating in African countries should adhere to leading mining practices and national regulations to minimise the environmental and social impacts of their operations.

The claim that it is urgent to acquire critical minerals must not be an excuse for African governments and foreign mining companies to bypass mining and environmental regulations. Rather, the urgency claims should give African governments greater power to make mining deals that will benefit people and the environment.

For these countries to use the economic opportunities arising, there must be incentives for local companies to mine and process lithium before exporting it. Processing of lithium in the country of origin would increase local returns, create jobs, and drive the growth of other sectors of the economy.

There is a need for coordinated efforts in Africa to build local capacity along the mining chain, from exploration to the market. There’s an opportunity also to build industries to support the global de-carbonisation agenda. An example would be manufacturing electronic vehicle batteries. In this way, Africa would not only be a source of raw materials, but a competitive source of low carbon products.

These are some key lessons for African countries.

James Boafo, Lecturer in Sustainable Development, Murdoch University; Eric Stemn, Lecturer, Safety and Engineering, University of Mines and Technology; Jacob Obodai, Postdoctoral Research Assistant, Edge Hill University, and Philip Nti Nkrumah, Researcher, Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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